Are Today Cellular Services A Combanation Of Both Pcs And Cellular

Communication network

Pinnacle of a cellular radio tower

Indoor cell site in Frg

A cellular network or mobile network is a communication network where the link to and from finish nodes is wireless. The network is distributed over country areas called "cells", each served by at least i fixed-location transceiver (typically three cell sites or base transceiver stations). These base of operations stations provide the cell with the network coverage which tin be used for transmission of voice, data, and other types of content. A prison cell typically uses a different gear up of frequencies from neighboring cells, to avoid interference and provide guaranteed service quality within each cell.^{[ commendation needed ] [ane]}

When joined together, these cells provide radio coverage over a wide geographic area. This enables numerous portable transceivers (e.g., mobile phones, tablets and laptops equipped with mobile broadband modems, pagers, etc.) to communicate with each other and with fixed transceivers and telephones anywhere in the network, via base of operations stations, even if some of the transceivers are moving through more than than one prison cell during manual.

Cellular networks offer a number of desirable features:^[1]

• More than capacity than a unmarried large transmitter, since the same frequency can exist used for multiple links every bit long every bit they are in different cells
• Mobile devices use less power than with a unmarried transmitter or satellite since the cell towers are closer^[2]
• Larger coverage area than a single terrestrial transmitter, since boosted prison cell towers tin can be added indefinitely and are not limited by the horizon

Major telecommunications providers have deployed voice and data cellular networks over most of the inhabited land area of Earth. This allows mobile phones and mobile computing devices to be connected to the public switched telephone network and public Net access. Private cellular networks tin be used for research^[3] or for large organizations and fleets, such as acceleration for local public safety agencies or a taxicab company.^[2]

Concept [edit]

Instance of frequency reuse cistron or pattern ane/4

In a cellular radio organization, a land expanse to be supplied with radio service is divided into cells in a blueprint dependent on terrain and reception characteristics. These cell patterns roughly accept the class of regular shapes, such as hexagons, squares, or circles although hexagonal cells are conventional. Each of these cells is assigned with multiple frequencies (f ₁ –f ₆) which have corresponding radio base stations. The group of frequencies tin can be reused in other cells, provided that the aforementioned frequencies are not reused in adjacent cells, which would cause co-channel interference.

The increased capacity in a cellular network, compared with a network with a single transmitter, comes from the mobile communication switching system developed by Amos Joel of Bell Labs^[4] that permitted multiple callers in a given area to use the same frequency by switching calls to the nearest bachelor cellular tower having that frequency available. This strategy is viable considering a given radio frequency can be reused in a unlike surface area for an unrelated manual. In dissimilarity, a single transmitter can only handle ane transmission for a given frequency. Inevitably, there is some level of interference from the signal from the other cells which use the aforementioned frequency. Consequently, there must be at to the lowest degree ane prison cell gap between cells which reuse the same frequency in a standard frequency-division multiple access (FDMA) organization.

Consider the case of a taxi company, where each radio has a manually operated aqueduct selector knob to tune to different frequencies. As drivers move around, they modify from channel to aqueduct. The drivers are enlightened of which frequency approximately covers some area. When they practice non receive a signal from the transmitter, they try other channels until finding one that works. The taxi drivers simply speak ane at a time when invited past the base station operator. This is a form of time-division multiple access (TDMA).

History [edit]

The showtime commercial cellular network, the 1G generation, was launched in Nihon by Nihon Telegraph and Telephone (NTT) in 1979, initially in the metropolitan surface area of Tokyo. Within five years, the NTT network had been expanded to encompass the whole population of Japan and became the first nationwide 1G network. It was an analog wireless network. The Bong System had developed cellular engineering science since 1947, and had cellular networks in operation in Chicago and Dallas prior to 1979, but commercial service was delayed by the breakup of the Bell Organization, with cellular assets transferred to the Regional Bell Operating Companies.

The wireless revolution began in the early 1990s,^{[v] [vi] [7]} leading to the transition from analog to digital networks.^[viii] This was enabled by advances in MOSFET technology. The MOSFET, originally invented by Mohamed Thousand. Atalla and Dawon Kahng at Bell Labs in 1959,^{[9] [10]} was adapted for cellular networks past the early 1990s, with the wide adoption of power MOSFET, LDMOS (RF amplifier), and RF CMOS (RF circuit) devices leading to the evolution and proliferation of digital wireless mobile networks.^{[8] [11] [12]}

The kickoff commercial digital cellular network, the 2G generation, was launched in 1991. This sparked competition in the sector every bit the new operators challenged the incumbent 1G analog network operators.

Cell bespeak encoding [edit]

To distinguish signals from several different transmitters, frequency-division multiple access (FDMA, used past analog and D-AMPS^{[ citation needed ]} systems), time-division multiple access (TDMA, used by GSM) and code-division multiple admission (CDMA, first used for PCS, and the footing of 3G) were adult.^[1]

With FDMA, the transmitting and receiving frequencies used by different users in each cell are different from each other. Each cellular call was assigned a pair of frequencies (i for base of operations to mobile, the other for mobile to base) to provide full-duplex operation. The original AMPS systems had 666 aqueduct pairs, 333 each for the CLEC "A" organisation and ILEC "B" system. The number of channels was expanded to 416 pairs per carrier, but ultimately the number of RF channels limits the number of calls that a cell site could handle. Annotation that FDMA is a familiar technology to telephone companies, that used frequency-segmentation multiplexing to add together channels to their point-to-point wireline plants before time-division multiplexing rendered FDM obsolete.

With TDMA, the transmitting and receiving time slots used by different users in each prison cell are dissimilar from each other. TDMA typically uses digital signaling to store and forward bursts of vox data that are fit into time slices for transmission, and expanded at the receiving stop to produce a somewhat normal-sounding vocalization at the receiver. TDMA must introduce latency (time delay) into the audio point. As long as the latency fourth dimension is curt enough that the delayed sound is non heard as an repeat, it is not problematic. Note that TDMA is a familiar engineering science for telephone companies, that used time-partitioning multiplexing to add channels to their bespeak-to-point wireline plants before packet switching rendered FDM obsolete.

The principle of CDMA is based on spread spectrum engineering developed for war machine use during World War 2 and improved during the Common cold State of war into direct-sequence spread spectrum that was used for early CDMA cellular systems and Wi-Fi. DSSS allows multiple simultaneous phone conversations to take place on a single wideband RF aqueduct, without needing to channelize them in time or frequency. Although more sophisticated than older multiple admission schemes (and unfamiliar to legacy telephone companies considering it was not adult by Bell Labs), CDMA has scaled well to become the basis for 3G cellular radio systems.

Other available methods of multiplexing such every bit MIMO, a more sophisticated version of antenna diversity, combined with active beamforming provides much greater spatial multiplexing ability compared to original AMPS cells, that typically only addressed one to iii unique spaces. Massive MIMO deployment allows much greater channel re-use, thus increasing the number of subscribers per cell site, greater data throughput per user, or some combination thereof. Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM) modems offer an increasing number of bits per symbol, assuasive more than users per megahertz of bandwidth (and decibels of SNR), greater data throughput per user, or some combination thereof.

Frequency reuse [edit]

The key characteristic of a cellular network is the ability to re-utilize frequencies to increment both coverage and capacity. As described above, adjacent cells must apply different frequencies, still, at that place is no problem with 2 cells sufficiently far autonomously operating on the same frequency, provided the masts and cellular network users' equipment do not transmit with too much ability.^[1]

The elements that make up one's mind frequency reuse are the reuse altitude and the reuse gene. The reuse distance, D is calculated as

${\displaystyle D=R{\sqrt {3N}}}$ ,

where R is the cell radius and Northward is the number of cells per cluster. Cells may vary in radius from 1 to xxx kilometres (0.62 to 18.64 mi). The boundaries of the cells can also overlap between adjacent cells and big cells tin be divided into smaller cells.^[13]

The frequency reuse cistron is the charge per unit at which the aforementioned frequency tin exist used in the network. Information technology is i/K (or One thousand according to some books) where K is the number of cells which cannot use the same frequencies for manual. Common values for the frequency reuse gene are 1/iii, 1/4, 1/7, 1/9 and 1/12 (or iii, 4, 7, 9 and 12 depending on note).^[fourteen]

In case of Northward sector antennas on the aforementioned base of operations station site, each with different direction, the base station site can serve Due north unlike sectors. N is typically 3. A reuse pattern of N/One thousand denotes a further division in frequency among N sector antennas per site. Some current and historical reuse patterns are 3/7 (North American AMPS), 6/4 (Motorola NAMPS), and three/4 (GSM).

If the total available bandwidth is B, each cell tin can but employ a number of frequency channels respective to a bandwidth of B/Grand, and each sector can use a bandwidth of B/NK.

Code-division multiple admission-based systems use a wider frequency band to attain the aforementioned charge per unit of transmission as FDMA, but this is compensated for past the ability to employ a frequency reuse cistron of 1, for instance using a reuse pattern of 1/one. In other words, adjacent base station sites use the same frequencies, and the unlike base stations and users are separated by codes rather than frequencies. While N is shown as i in this example, that does not mean the CDMA cell has only one sector, merely rather that the entire prison cell bandwidth is as well bachelor to each sector individually.

Recently too orthogonal frequency-segmentation multiple admission based systems such equally LTE are beingness deployed with a frequency reuse of 1. Since such systems exercise non spread the bespeak beyond the frequency band, inter-cell radio resource direction is important to coordinate resources allotment betwixt dissimilar jail cell sites and to limit the inter-cell interference. There are various means of inter-cell interference coordination (ICIC) already defined in the standard.^[15] Coordinated scheduling, multi-site MIMO or multi-site beamforming are other examples for inter-jail cell radio resources management that might exist standardized in the future.

Directional antennas [edit]

Cell towers frequently utilize a directional signal to improve reception in higher-traffic areas. In the United States, the Federal Communications Committee (FCC) limits omnidirectional cell tower signals to 100 watts of power. If the tower has directional antennas, the FCC allows the jail cell operator to emit up to 500 watts of effective radiated power (ERP).^[sixteen]

Although the original cell towers created an even, omnidirectional signal, were at the centers of the cells and were omnidirectional, a cellular map tin be redrawn with the cellular phone towers located at the corners of the hexagons where three cells converge.^[17] Each tower has three sets of directional antennas aimed in three dissimilar directions with 120 degrees for each cell (totaling 360 degrees) and receiving/transmitting into three dissimilar cells at different frequencies. This provides a minimum of 3 channels, and three towers for each cell and greatly increases the chances of receiving a usable signal from at to the lowest degree ane direction.

The numbers in the illustration are channel numbers, which echo every three cells. Large cells can exist subdivided into smaller cells for high book areas.^[eighteen]

Cell phone companies also employ this directional indicate to improve reception along highways and inside buildings like stadiums and arenas.^[16]

Circulate letters and paging [edit]

Practically every cellular organisation has some kind of circulate mechanism. This tin be used straight for distributing information to multiple mobiles. Commonly, for example in mobile telephony systems, the about important utilise of broadcast information is to set up channels for ane-to-i communication between the mobile transceiver and the base station. This is called paging. The 3 unlike paging procedures generally adopted are sequential, parallel and selective paging.

The details of the process of paging vary somewhat from network to network, simply normally we know a express number of cells where the telephone is located (this grouping of cells is chosen a Location Surface area in the GSM or UMTS system, or Routing Area if a data packet session is involved; in LTE, cells are grouped into Tracking Areas). Paging takes place by sending the broadcast message to all of those cells. Paging messages can exist used for information transfer. This happens in pagers, in CDMA systems for sending SMS messages, and in the UMTS system where it allows for depression downlink latency in packet-based connections.

Move from cell to cell and handing over [edit]

In a primitive taxi system, when the taxi moved abroad from a commencement tower and closer to a 2nd belfry, the taxi driver manually switched from one frequency to another equally needed. If communication was interrupted due to a loss of a bespeak, the taxi commuter asked the base station operator to repeat the message on a different frequency.

In a cellular organization, as the distributed mobile transceivers move from cell to prison cell during an ongoing continuous communication, switching from ane prison cell frequency to a different cell frequency is washed electronically without intermission and without a base station operator or manual switching. This is called the handover or handoff. Typically, a new channel is automatically selected for the mobile unit on the new base station which will serve it. The mobile unit so automatically switches from the current channel to the new channel and communication continues.

The exact details of the mobile system'southward move from ane base of operations station to the other vary considerably from arrangement to system (see the example beneath for how a mobile phone network manages handover).

Mobile phone network [edit]

WCDMA network compages

The most mutual example of a cellular network is a mobile phone (cell telephone) network. A mobile telephone is a portable telephone which receives or makes calls through a cell site (base station) or transmitting tower. Radio waves are used to transfer signals to and from the cell phone.

Modernistic mobile phone networks use cells because radio frequencies are a limited, shared resource. Cell-sites and handsets change frequency under computer control and use low power transmitters and so that the commonly express number of radio frequencies can be simultaneously used by many callers with less interference.

A cellular network is used by the mobile telephone operator to achieve both coverage and capacity for their subscribers. Large geographic areas are split into smaller cells to avoid line-of-sight signal loss and to support a big number of active phones in that expanse. All of the cell sites are continued to telephone exchanges (or switches), which in turn connect to the public telephone network.

In cities, each cell site may have a range of up to approximately ane⁄two mile (0.80 km), while in rural areas, the range could be as much as 5 miles (8.0 km). It is possible that in articulate open areas, a user may receive signals from a jail cell site 25 miles (40 km) away.

Since nearly all mobile phones use cellular technology, including GSM, CDMA, and AMPS (analog), the term "cell phone" is in some regions, notably the The states, used interchangeably with "mobile phone". However, satellite phones are mobile phones that do not communicate directly with a basis-based cellular tower only may do then indirectly by way of a satellite.

At that place are a number of different digital cellular technologies, including: Global Organisation for Mobile Communications (GSM), General Packet Radio Service (GPRS), cdmaOne, CDMA2000, Evolution-Data Optimized (EV-Do), Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE), Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS), Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications (DECT), Digital AMPS (IS-136/TDMA), and Integrated Digital Enhanced Network (iDEN). The transition from existing analog to the digital standard followed a very different path in Europe and the The states.^[19] As a event, multiple digital standards surfaced in the US, while Europe and many countries converged towards the GSM standard.

Structure of the mobile phone cellular network [edit]

A simple view of the cellular mobile-radio network consists of the post-obit:

• A network of radio base stations forming the base station subsystem.
• The core excursion switched network for handling vox calls and text
• A packet switched network for handling mobile information
• The public switched phone network to connect subscribers to the wider telephony network

This network is the foundation of the GSM system network. There are many functions that are performed by this network in order to make sure customers become the desired service including mobility direction, registration, call set up-upward, and handover.

Any phone connects to the network via an RBS (Radio Base Station) at a corner of the respective cell which in turn connects to the Mobile switching center (MSC). The MSC provides a connexion to the public switched phone network (PSTN). The link from a phone to the RBS is called an uplink while the other way is termed downlink.

Radio channels effectively utilize the transmission medium through the use of the following multiplexing and access schemes: frequency-partition multiple access (FDMA), time-division multiple admission (TDMA), code-division multiple access (CDMA), and space-division multiple access (SDMA).

Pocket-sized cells [edit]

Small cells, which have a smaller coverage expanse than base stations, are categorised as follows:

• Microcell -> less than 2 kilometres,
• Picocell -> less than 200 metres,
• Femtocell -> around 10 metres,
• Attocell -> one–4 metres

Cellular handover in mobile phone networks [edit]

As the phone user moves from one cell area to some other cell while a call is in progress, the mobile station will search for a new channel to attach to in order non to drop the call. Once a new channel is constitute, the network will command the mobile unit to switch to the new channel and at the same time switch the call onto the new channel.

With CDMA, multiple CDMA handsets share a specific radio channel. The signals are separated by using a pseudonoise code (PN code) that is specific to each phone. As the user moves from one cell to another, the handset sets up radio links with multiple cell sites (or sectors of the same site) simultaneously. This is known as "soft handoff" because, dissimilar with traditional cellular engineering, there is no one defined point where the phone switches to the new cell.

In IS-95 inter-frequency handovers and older analog systems such as NMT it will typically exist impossible to test the target channel straight while communicating. In this case, other techniques have to exist used such as pilot beacons in IS-95. This ways that there is almost ever a brief break in the advice while searching for the new aqueduct followed by the risk of an unexpected return to the old channel.

If in that location is no ongoing advice or the communication tin can be interrupted, information technology is possible for the mobile unit to spontaneously move from one cell to another and so notify the base station with the strongest point.

Cellular frequency choice in mobile phone networks [edit]

The effect of frequency on prison cell coverage ways that dissimilar frequencies serve better for dissimilar uses. Low frequencies, such every bit 450  MHz NMT, serve very well for countryside coverage. GSM 900 (900 MHz) is suitable for low-cal urban coverage. GSM 1800 (1.eight GHz) starts to exist limited by structural walls. UMTS, at 2.1 GHz is quite similar in coverage to GSM 1800.

Higher frequencies are a disadvantage when it comes to coverage, but it is a decided advantage when it comes to capacity. Picocells, covering due east.g. one floor of a building, go possible, and the aforementioned frequency can exist used for cells which are practically neighbors.

Cell service area may too vary due to interference from transmitting systems, both inside and around that jail cell. This is true especially in CDMA based systems. The receiver requires a certain betoken-to-noise ratio, and the transmitter should not transport with too high transmission power in view to non cause interference with other transmitters. Equally the receiver moves away from the transmitter, the ability received decreases, so the power control algorithm of the transmitter increases the power it transmits to restore the level of received ability. As the interference (noise) rises above the received power from the transmitter, and the ability of the transmitter cannot exist increased anymore, the signal becomes corrupted and somewhen unusable. In CDMA-based systems, the effect of interference from other mobile transmitters in the same cell on coverage surface area is very marked and has a special proper noun, cell animate.

One can come across examples of prison cell coverage past studying some of the coverage maps provided by real operators on their spider web sites or by looking at independently crowdsourced maps such equally Opensignal or CellMapper. In certain cases they may mark the site of the transmitter; in others, information technology can be calculated by working out the point of strongest coverage.

A cellular repeater is used to extend cell coverage into larger areas. They range from wideband repeaters for consumer use in homes and offices to smart or digital repeaters for industrial needs.

Jail cell size [edit]

The following table shows the dependency of the coverage surface area of one cell on the frequency of a CDMA2000 network:^[twenty]

Frequency (MHz)	Cell radius (km)	Prison cell expanse (km2)	Relative prison cell count
450	48.nine	7521	ane
950	26.9	2269	3.3
1800	xiv.0	618	12.2
2100	12.0	449	sixteen.2

See as well [edit]

Cellular network standards and generation timeline.

Lists and technical data:

• Mobile technologies
  • 2G networks (the start digital networks, 1G and 0G were analog):
    • GSM
      • Circuit Switched Data (CSD)
      • GPRS
      • EDGE(IMT-SC)
      • Evolved EDGE
    • Digital AMPS
      • Cellular Digital Packet Data (CDPD)
    • cdmaOne (IS-95)
      • Circuit Switched Data (CSD)
  • 3G networks:
    • UMTS
      • W-CDMA (air interface)
      • TD-CDMA (air interface)
      • TD-SCDMA (air interface)
        • HSPA
        • HSDPA
        • HSPA+
    • CDMA2000
      • OFDMA (air interface)
        • EVDO
          • SVDO
  • 4G networks:
    • LTE (TD-LTE)
      • LTE Avant-garde
      • LTE Advanced Pro
    • WiMAX
      • WiMAX-Advanced (WirelessMAN-Advanced)
    • Ultra Mobile Broadband (never commercialized)
    • MBWA (IEEE 802.twenty, Mobile Broadband Wireless Access, HC-SDMA, iBurst, has been shut downwards)
  • 5G networks:
    • 5G NR
    • 5G-Advanced

Starting with EVDO the following techniques can also be used to improve performance:

• MIMO, SDMA and Beamforming

• Cellular frequencies
  • CDMA frequency bands
  • GSM frequency bands
  • UMTS frequency bands
  • LTE frequency bands
  • 5G NR frequency bands
• Deployed networks by applied science
  • List of UMTS networks
  • Listing of CDMA2000 networks
  • List of LTE networks
  • Listing of deployed WiMAX networks
  • Listing of 5G NR networks
• Deployed networks past land (including engineering and frequencies)
  • List of mobile network operators of Europe
  • List of mobile network operators of the Americas
  • List of mobile network operators of the Asia Pacific region
  • List of mobile network operators of the Eye East and Africa
  • List of mobile network operators (summary)
• Mobile state code - code, frequency, and technology for each operator in each country
• Comparison of mobile phone standards

Equipment:

• Cellular repeater
• Cellular router
• Professional mobile radio (PMR)
• OpenBTS

Other:

• Cellular traffic
• MIMO (multiple-input and multiple-output)
• Mobile edge computing
• Mobile phone radiation and health
• Network simulation
• Radio resource direction (RRM)
• Routing in cellular networks
• Point force
• Title 47 of the Lawmaking of Federal Regulations

References [edit]

1. ^ ^{a b c d} Guowang Miao; Jens Zander; Ki Won Sung; Ben Slimane (2016). Fundamentals of Mobile Data Networks. Cambridge University Press. ISBN978-1107143210.
2. ^ ^{a b} "Be Mobile, Stay Connected | PMN". Privatemobilenetworks.com. Retrieved 23 November 2013.
3. ^ Tom Simonite (24 January 2013). "Google's Individual Cell Phone Network Could Be a Threat to Cellular Carriers | MIT Technology Review". Technologyreview.com. Retrieved 23 Nov 2013.
4. ^ U.Due south. Patent 3,663,762, issued xvi May 1972.
5. ^ Golio, Mike; Golio, Janet (2018). RF and Microwave Passive and Agile Technologies. CRC Press. pp. 9, I-1, xviii–2. ISBN9781420006728.
6. ^ Rappaport, T. S. (Nov 1991). "The wireless revolution". IEEE Communications Magazine. 29 (eleven): 52–71. doi:10.1109/35.109666. S2CID 46573735.
7. ^ "The wireless revolution". The Economist. 21 January 1999. Retrieved 12 September 2019.
8. ^ ^{a b} Baliga, B. Jayant (2005). Silicon RF Power MOSFETS. World Scientific. ISBN9789812561213.
9. ^ Sahay, Shubham; Kumar, Mamidala Jagadesh (2019). Junctionless Field-Effect Transistors: Pattern, Modeling, and Simulation. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN9781119523536.
10. ^ "Remarks past Director Iancu at the 2019 International Intellectual Property Conference". U.s.a. Patent and Trademark Office. 10 June 2019. Archived from the original on 17 December 2019. Retrieved twenty July 2019.
11. ^ Asif, Saad (2018). 5G Mobile Communications: Concepts and Technologies. CRC Press. pp. 128–134. ISBN9780429881343.
12. ^ O'Neill, A. (2008). "Asad Abidi Recognized for Work in RF-CMOS". IEEE Solid-State Circuits Society Newsletter. 13 (1): 57–58. doi:x.1109/N-SSC.2008.4785694. ISSN 1098-4232.
13. ^ J. E. Flood. Telecommunication Networks. Institution of Electrical Engineers, London, U.k., 1997. chapter 12.
14. ^ "Phone Networks". The Reverse Phone. eight June 2011. Archived from the original on 30 Apr 2012. Retrieved 2 April 2012.
15. ^ Pauli, Volker; Naranjo, Juan Diego; Seidel, Eiko (December 2010). "Heterogeneous LTE Networks and Inter-Cell Interference Coordination" (PDF). Nomor Research. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 September 2013. Retrieved 2 April 2012.
16. ^ ^{a b} Drucker, Elliott, The Myth of Cellular Belfry Health Hazards, archived from the original on 2 May 2014, retrieved nineteen Nov 2013
17. ^ "Cellular Telephone Basics". Privateline.com. 1 January 2006. p. 2. Archived from the original on 17 April 2012. Retrieved 2 April 2012.
18. ^ U.Southward. Patent four,144,411 – Cellular Radiotelephone System for Unlike Cell Sizes – Richard H. Frenkiel (Bell Labs), filed 22 September 1976, issued 13 March 1979
19. ^ Paetsch, Michael (1993): The evolution of mobile communications in the Usa and Europe. Regulation, engineering science, and markets. Boston, London: Artech House (The Artech Business firm mobile communications library).
20. ^ Colin Chandler (3 Dec 2003). "CDMA 2000 and CDMA 450" (PDF). p. 17.

Farther reading [edit]

• P. Primal, D. Smith. Teletraffic Engineering in a competitive world. Elsevier Scientific discipline B.V., Amsterdam Netherlands, 1999. ISBN 978-0444502681. Chapter one (Plenary) and 3 (mobile).
• William C. Y. Lee, Mobile Cellular Telecommunications Systems (1989), McGraw-Loma.

External links [edit]

• Raciti, Robert C. (July 1995). "CELLULAR Engineering science". Nova Southeastern University. Archived from the original on xv July 2013. Retrieved 2 Apr 2012.
• A History of Cellular Networks
• What are cellular networks? 1G to 6G Features & Evolution

Are Today Cellular Services A Combanation Of Both Pcs And Cellular,

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellular_network

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